Introduction The relentless progress of modern computing, from artificial intelligence to 5G communication, is fundamentally underpinned by advancements in semiconductor devices. At the heart of every integrated circuit (IC) lies the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), a switch so small that billions can fit on a single chip. However, as physical limits approach, the classical planar MOSFET has evolved into a suite of novel device architectures and material systems. This piece explores the key modern semiconductor devices that define contemporary ICs, including FinFETs, Gate-All-Around (GAA) nanosheets, and emerging technologies for memory and heterogeneous integration. 1. The End of Planar Scaling: The Rise of FinFETs For decades, the planar MOSFET—where the gate electrode sits flat on top of the silicon channel—was scaled down following Moore’s Law. By the 22nm technology node (circa 2012), short-channel effects became catastrophic. As gate lengths shrank below 30nm, the gate could no longer effectively control the channel current, leading to excessive leakage and power dissipation.